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美国情报中的保密和问责制 FAS注意:以下论文是为情报改革研讨会准备的国际政策中心


美国情报中的保密和问责制


经过
史蒂文·艾伯德(Steven Authgood)
政府保密项目主任
美国科学家联合会
1996年10月9日

在过去几年中最重要的情报争议中,保密和问责制的问题突出了。尽管美国情报机构在保护国家秘密免受外国对手的侵害方面做得非常糟糕,但它们在阻止美国公民进入最基本的情报信息类别方面取得了更大的成功。

尽管全球安全环境发生了时期的变化,但几十年前采用的分类实践仍在挫败看似全能的苏联威胁仍然有效。国会的监督通常限于丑闻后的愤慨表达du jour,同时加强了过时的安全惯例,这将有助于使下一个丑闻更有可能。未经检查的保密政策甚至抑制了政府本身内部情报的交流。同时,公众对政府保密的宽容正在减少,而继承的分类实践也受到安全学科的侵蚀以及公共领域中越来越有能力的信息技术的挑战。

在美国政府中,尤其是情报事务一直存在一定程度的保密性,并且它与美国理想持续存在冲突,而美国理想尚未解决。

但是今天,美国情报中的保密程度是增加过时和改革障碍的症状。本文概述了政府保密的结构,审查了当前的情报保密政策,批评国会对情报的监督,并为未来提出了一些纠正措施。

三类保密

在以国家安全的名义归类的多种类型的信息中,可以区分三个一般类别:真正的国家安全保密,政治保密和官僚保密。

真正的国家安全保密与该信息有关,如果披露,这些信息实际上可能会以某种可识别的方式损害国家安全。当然,这就引发了关于“国家安全”是什么,构成“损害”的关键问题,以及这些条款的含义如何随着时间而变化。没有试图最终定义国家安全 - 一个单独检查的值得一提为了执行授权的外交和情报功能,请保持秘密。这种信息的敏感性是我们首先拥有保密系统的原因,当它正常运行时,该系统积极地为公共利益服务。

The second category is political secrecy, which refers to the deliberate and conscious abuse of classification authority for political advantage, irrespective of any threat to the national security. This is the smallest of the three categories but it is also the most dangerous to the political health of the nation. Perhaps the most extreme example of political secrecy in intelligence historically was the classification of CIA behavior modification experiments on unknowing human subjects, as in the MKULTRA program. To guarantee the permanent secrecy of this activity, most MKULTRA records were destroyed in the early 1970s, although the CIA continues to classify many such records today.2但是,此类别还包括更多的滥用,例如对情报预算的分类,这旨在限制公众对情报优先事项和绩效的官方讨论,但对增强美国人的安全没有任何作用。

第三类是所谓的官僚保密。这与所有组织的趋势限制了他们发布给外部人的信息,以控制对组织的看法,如Max Weber的古典描述。官僚保密似乎是当前分类实践中的主要因素,这是整个政府范围内数十亿页的分类记录中的大部分。

Last year, for example, the Central Intelligence Agency specifically denied a Freedom of Information Act request from the Federation of American Scientists for intelligence budget information dating back to 1947. Whatever the term "damage to national security" might mean, no sane person would argue that fifty year old budget numbers could damage national security today.3Nor is there any political advantage to be gained by insisting on the classification of old intelligence budgets, particularly since they have already been declassified in large part by other agencies without the CIA's knowledge or consent.

There is inevitably a subjective factor in the assignment of a particular unit of information into one of the three categories of secrecy. The borders of the three categories may sometimes be blurred in practice. Furthermore, information that falls in one category at one moment will often belong in another category at some later date. Responsible classification management-- i.e., the elimination of all but genuine national security secrecy-- therefore depends to a large degree on the good judgment and the good will of the managers. Failing that, it depends on the steadfast advocacy of congressional overseers. And when that fails, responsibility reverts to the public.

合法的保密,自我服务的分类权限和官僚主义的融合,或多或少地与我们的目前形式相处了近50年。但是它似乎达到了一个危机点,其结果将有助于确定21世纪初期的安全政策。

我们今天在哪里?

美国情报保密基本上是盲目的reflex. The operative principle is not simply "When in doubt, classify"-- it is just "classify." Almost everything about intelligence is classified unless some high official takes the initiative to declassify it. The extraction of information from U.S. intelligence agencies through official mechanisms like the Freedom of Information Act is usually a fruitless exercise for a member of the public.5

中央情报局已抓住了保护“来源和方法”的法定要求,以对其选择的所有内容进行分类。因此,如前所述,中央情报局仍然声称,其1947年预算的解密将损害“来源和方法”,从而使任何有意义的内容的术语撤消。6

情报界在1950年的国家安全委员会指令中最直率地描述了情报界对保密性的指导,该指令建议“关于情报的任何宣传,事实或虚构的任何宣传可能对情报活动和国家安全的有效性有害”。7The directive instructed all relevant departments and agencies to prevent the disclosure of any information about intelligence, except when specifically authorized.

Today, of course, publicity about intelligence, factual and fictional, is rampant. Many hundreds of official intelligence publications, some extremely valuable, are available for sale to the public. All U.S. intelligence agencies have world wide web sites on the Internet, with gradually increasing content. Various discretely targeted declassification efforts have led to the release of hundreds of national intelligence estimates on the Soviet Union, hundreds of thousands of CORONA satellite images from the 1960s, the VENONA decrypts of intercepted Soviet cable traffic, and more.8And the CIA has pledged to "declassify up to 60 million pages [of classified records] by April 2000" in compliance with President Clinton's executive order 12958.9

但是,尽管最终可能会更多地获得苏联原子间谍的记录,例如五十年前或乌干达的官方中央情报局地图,但美国公众仍被拒绝官方了解最基本的知识美国情报,尤其是情报预算的规模和组成。在其他方面,与情报有关的保密实际上是增加10至于中央情报局的“开放性”承诺,自威廉·科尔比(William Colby)任职以来,几乎每个DCI都提倡更大的开放性和增加解密,因此他们的信誉一直在稳步下降,结果始终没有承诺的结果。11

表征情报披露政策失败的一种方法是说,它未能随着苏联的崩溃而达成协议。美国情报的滥交的原始原理是超级大国对手在高度军事准备状态下的挑战,具有侵略性,大型且有能力的情报服务,旨在旨在国际颠覆和全球统治。在这种情况下,披露最小信息的信息被认为是潜在的责任,也许是渐进的威胁。

随着消除苏联挑战,仍然有必要指出,现在没有对美国安全的遥不可及的威胁。12从信息披露的角度来看,国际恐怖分子,毒贩,伊朗,伊拉克,利比亚或朝鲜的威胁几乎可以忽略不计。一方面,这些对手大多数(与苏联不同)缺乏利用我们最敏感的技术秘密的工业基础设施。

Other types of formerly sensitive information are likewise benign in the absence of a superpower threat. Thus, not long ago, pending military operations would have been considered the most sensitive of classified activities, bar none. But in an extraordinary departure from past practice, details of the recent cruise missile strike against Iraq were reported提前操作本身。13这不是违反安全的行为,而是对国家安全环境改变的反映。无论伊拉克是否知道美国袭击即将来临,这根本没有任何区别。

但是,当前国家安全的现实及其对披露政策的影响仍然没有渗透到美国情报的心态(这不是对情报机构的有利评论)。

国家安全的实际要求(按该术语的任何定义)与情报机构的不加区分区别的保密性之间的差异已经造成了新的紧张程度,有时在警报公众中遇到了美国情报方面的完全敌意。

Thus, a Department of Defense survey found that a majority of the American public believes that, "given the world situation," the government classifies too many documents and keeps too many secrets.14这是一个非常重要的发现,因为它表明开放不是公共利益繁忙企业所推动的某种“特殊兴趣”问题,而是人民的意愿。

And in an open society, the will of the people cannot be obstructed for long without some consequences.

泄漏越来越多

One of the consequences of the failure of intelligence disclosure policy to keep up with current realities and public expectations is a significant erosion of security discipline, leading to a near epidemic of unauthorized disclosures of classified information, or "leaks."

当然,泄漏并不是什么新鲜事物。他们是保密的杨的阴。正如一位作家所说,“中央情报局本身的历史始于泄漏”是合适的。16

And complaints about leaks are equally old. Lately, Defense Secretary William Perry expressed "deep concern" about a continuing series of "newspaper articles based on highly classified intelligence reports" and asked the FBI to begin an investigation to attempt to locate and prosecute the leakers.17

关于泄漏频率或泄漏者数量,没有可靠的公共统计数据。但是,即使搁置了大量的“泄漏”,这些“泄漏”实际上是在非贡献的基础上,似乎也有大量升级的真正未经授权的披露数量,从出现的几乎每天的报价中判断在国家出版社。

实际上,泄漏已成为政治生活的普遍事实,克林顿政府官员在1994年决定不采取秘密行动将武器运往波斯尼亚穆斯林,因为他们认为这将不可避免地成为公共知识,并且伊朗武器货物被允许允许取而代之的是。18Thus, an otherwise legal policy option was foreclosed by the growing dysfunction of the national security secrecy system.

也不需要成为国家新闻机构的明星记者,才能处于这种未经授权的披露的接收端。从我自己在国会山上的栖息处,我从几乎每个分类类别中获得了文档,直到并包括未经确认的特殊访问程序记录。除少数例外,我所看到的机密记录不能说是对国家安全构成任何威胁。

我遇到的“泄漏者”都不是无政府主义者或对国家安全无动于衷或敌对的个人。他们根本不认为文件的分类级别是其国家安全敏感性的准确指示。问题是,他们是对的。

But as a practical matter, the government has found it easier to tolerate the growing number of leaks than to prune the secrecy system down to the size dictated by genuine national security considerations. Consequently, leaks have become an essential component of the checks and balances that Americans depend on.

The Intelligence Budget: Classified, But Not Secret

教会委员会在1976年彻底提出了对情报预算的分类和反对分类的论点,该委员会得出结论,预算总计应每年发布,并应考虑发布更详细的数字。20这些论点随着年龄的增长没有改变(或改善),尽管它们是定期召集的。

反对解密的连贯论点的最接近的事情是,它将导致进一步不受控制的披露的滑坡。但这是没有其他机密支出的经验所支持的。因此,在未分类的国防预算框架内隐藏了大量的分类(非智能)国防支出,这表明,“持有”不受控制的披露是完全可行的。21

今天,即使是谦虚的教会委员会的建议 - 应该考虑到超出总数的披露 - 即使在国会预算披露的国会倡导者中,也几乎没有官方支持。22

然而,由于大量故意和意外的披露,美国的许多情报预算现在都属于“归类但不是秘密”的不断增长的信息类别。

因此,众议院拨款委员会无意间透露了国家外国情报计划(NFIP),战术情报及相关活动(TIARA)计划和中央情报局预算的规模。23A classified memorandum setting out detailed five year budget projections for the NSA, DIA and other agencies was leaked to国防周, which published the memorandum.24The recent report of the Commission on the Roles and Capabilities of the U.S. Intelligence Community unintentionally provided budget and personnel details on the CIA, DIA, NSA and NRO.25Further details can be readily deduced from close examination of unclassified government records.26

有人可能会说,如果所有这些信息已经可用,那么预算是否被解释会带来什么区别?至少有两个答案。

首先,将预算分类的急剧减少到一个可以在真正的国家安全方面进行合理辩护的水平,将使情报界能够在最需要的地方集中其安全资源。国家不必再容忍情报支出作为国家安全秘密的情况,而美国对手则以几千美元购买间谍卫星操作手册,并经常检测,转向或执行美国情报来源。不加选择的保密的人对这些安全失败的负担负担不大,而保密最重要。

其次,预算的发布将有助于揭开“情报崇拜”的神秘面纱,并大大简化国会监督负担,否则这些负担是无法控制的。

国会监督的局限性

通过延续不加区分的保密政策,国会不必要地削弱了情报监督过程,使监督的质量几乎完全取决于情报界的善意和诚意。

国会对情报的监督的缺陷可以总结,即与实际上任何其他政府活动相比,情报需要更多的监督,但收到的次数更少。

Intelligence demands oversight above and beyond the mere supervision of tens of billions of dollars of annual expenditures because of the fact that it routinely operates outside the norms of U.S. law. Thus, the House Intelligence Committee recently observed that in the clandestine service

但是,即使是对常规预算事务的“仅仅监督”似乎也无法实现国会监督的范围。例如,仅仅是因为预算文件没有提供详细的会计,并且至少直到最近,国会才能要求一项会计,仅仅是因为预算文件没有提供详细的会计。29

公共记录不允许对情报监督的质量和有效性进行完整的评估。公平地说,应承认,监督可能比普遍赞赏的要好得多。可以说,监督系统的存在具有一些有益的影响。因此,前DCI罗伯特·盖茨指出:

但是,从根本上讲,当前的国会监督制度在结构上是有缺陷的,甚至没有提供专门针对其他不太重要和危险的政府活动的审查。

This is because of the fact that a large fraction of the "oversight" function in every policy area from agriculture to health care is performed by the media, including numerous specialized trade publications. At the Pentagon alone, well over a thousand journalists hold building passes and are free to roam its halls at will, sniffing around for dirt or, at least, news. Their investigative efforts are supplemented and informed by countless advocacy groups.

但是,在媒体和倡导小组对情报的监督的机会中,在一个环境中,即使是钢笔和铅笔的预算也是国家安全的秘密,在这种环境下,媒体和倡导者的机会极为有限。因此,部分原因是对情报事务进行原始调查报告的记者数量的数量低于双位数,而从事自​​己的研究的私人倡导小组的数量是单位数字。

"Because of the classified nature of the programs we review," writes Senate Intelligence Committee staffer Mary K. Sturtevant, "we are especially reliant on information provided by the very Community we hope to oversee. We lack alternative sources of information and points of view on intelligence budget requests, as there are few constituents with legitimate access to intelligence programs who wish to bring information forward to the Committees."31

No matter how competent the Committee staffers may be, they cannot possibly make up for the deficit in independent information and analysis that results from the comprehensive secrecy surrounding intelligence.32

Sturtevant女士说:“尽管我们偶尔听到'微观管理的指控',但我们总是摇摇头,奇怪的是,这可能是这样的。在Toto中,我们也许是一打左右的全职预算,众议院和参议院审查活动的授权和拨款委员会由成千上万的平民和军事人员和计划以数十亿美元的价值进行。”

“我们通常每年只能审查一次计划,如果那样的话,我们会迅速(根据有限的信息)迅速提出思想。。”33

因此,即使在当前的环境中,情报界也相对出现在监督委员会中时,监督过程仍然不足。(自1995年5月以来,中央情报局已向委员会提供了300多个情报活动的通知。34

与情报相关的保密范围的巨大降低将使国会能够将其非常有限的资源集中在情报政策的最敏感方面(这是适当保密的),同时允许新闻界和有兴趣的公众在其余的部分。

取而代之的是,第104届国会的特质进一步加剧了国会监督的内在局限性。众议院情报委员会尤其是外国人的观念,即该委员会应成为监督机构的倡导者35;应劝阻解密,并应增加行政部门保密36;and that covert action can somehow be an instrument of a Congressional foreign policy.37

The reputation of Congressional oversight has now been degraded to the point that few Americans look to the intelligence committees to represent and defend their interests. The recent firestorm of criticism over alleged CIA links to cocaine traffickers reflects, among other things, a loss of public confidence in current oversight procedures.

In any event, with the erosion of discipline in the secrecy system, the press and the public are able to assert an ever greater role in overseeing U.S. intelligence.

克服情报保密

When government institutions fail in an open society, citizens are not powerless to respond. And when the intelligence community fails to deliver on its promises of "openness" and Congress blocks more fundamental reforms, that is by no means the end of the story.

尽管媒体对情报的监督有障碍,但至少有少数杰出的记者 - 我们都知道他们是谁 - 他们经常向公众报告(和国会)的信息比情报界希望拥有的更多信息更多透露的,报纸编辑很乐意在头版上强调他们的作品。上面指出的安全学科的侵蚀虽然在摘要中令人遗憾,但通过将披露权转移到新闻室,媒体的监督越来越可行。

例如,在过去六个月中,我们对伊拉克失败的秘密行动的了解要比我们对过去五十年中成千上万的秘密行动中的大多数了解更多。39

即使是相对微不足道的分类预算决策,也可以通过媒体的关注来确定CIA新体育馆的最新提案。仅在《华盛顿邮报》(不是国会)开始提出问题之后,就取消了在中央情报局追求1000万美元的体育设施的计划。40

如果滥交保密的影响是劝阻(或形成)公众对智力的认识,那么任何公众讨论(即使是互联网新闻组上最痴呆的帖子)都是适当的抵抗行为,可能有助于使公众声音合法化关于情报政策。

Perversely, public discourse on intelligence appears to be most politically effective when it is least accurate. Thus, Oliver Stone's hallucinatory movie RJFKS succeeded-- where pusillanimous appeals to the public interest failed-- in dislodging hundreds of thousands of pages about the assassination of President Kennedy from CIA files. By any rational assessment of the requirements of national security, most of these records should have been declassified long ago, but it took Oliver Stone to make it happen. Similarly, propagation of the Roswell myth-- i.e. the asserted crash of an extraterrestrial spacecraft in New Mexico in 1947 and the subsequent coverup-- proved remarkably effective in promoting declassification of records from that era.41但是在这些情况下,最终促成解密的公众态度变得如此深刻,以至于没有受到旧文件的释放的影响。这样,当前的分类政策促进了公共愚蠢。42

但这是旧新闻。在不太遥远的将来时e, emerging new technologies will dramatically reduce public dependence on the willingness of the intelligence community and the Congress to disclose information. One outstanding example is the commercial high-resolution satellite imaging capabilities that will become available to the public and the media in 1998, and which exceed the quality of what was available to the U.S. intelligence community itself as recently as thirty years ago. For better and for worse, there will be far fewer secrets as a result.

实际上,公众很快将具有另一种情报能力,而官方情报界的优先级不偏重,这已经强调“对军事行动”的强调,而牺牲了预防外交和其他国家利益。

Even allowing for exaggerated expectations and several degrees of hype, the advent of high resolution satellite imagery-- along with the global media explosion, expanding Internet utility, and similar developments-- represents a fundamental shift in the "balance of power" between individual citizens and the government.43

在这种情况下,历史学家是失败者,因为情报界可能永远不会完全宣传其冷战的秘密,就像国会可能永远不会在公开场合公开讨论情报预算的内容一样。但是对于其他所有人来说,官方保密将变得越来越少。

未来的步骤

以上考虑因素导致了几项特定的建议,这些提案将大大减少围绕智力的保密性,并使其对当天的需求更加敏感。

1.将情报预算降低到计划级别。

所有情报机构的预算至少应按照公认的国防部的例子来解密至计划级别。

国防预算规定了数十个机密计划,仅通过其程序昵称来确定其目的仍然晦涩难懂,即受保护。情报预算中应采用相同的做法。

与流行的观点相反,我的的数量ey spent on intelligence is not intrinsically sensitive, although it may be politically controversial. As the defense budget has proven for decades, revealing the amount of money spent on a program does not jeopardize the sensitive contents of that program. It is simply fallacious to assert that disclosing the amount of money the CIA or DIA spends on analysis-- or the cost of a particular satellite program, not to mention general construction and administrative costs-- would compromise sensitive sources and methods. Even the amount of spending for clandestine collection or covert action could reveal nothing about the distribution or the targeting of such activities, and should be declassified. As it is, these numbers are hardly secret.45

有人认为,即使单个数字不损害敏感信息,增量支出变化的年度比较也会揭示敏感的新计划。但这是基于全球苏联威胁的冷战论点。如今,即使是DCI也毫不犹豫地公开宣布,人类情报的资金已被“恒定地”维持,或者“在过去18个月中获得新来源的收益远远超过了以前的成就”。46Publishing the budget for clandestine collection would not even reveal很多。

预算披露是sine qua nonfor reintegrating U.S. intelligence into post-Cold War American democracy. If it cannot be accomplished, then any other "reforms" will likely be futile.

2.正式认识到公众是智力的合法消费者。

关于情报的基本定义性问题之一是,它服务于谁?传统上,这个问题的答案是总统及其顾问圈。

但是情报是用于为政策提供信息的信息,尤其是关于国防和外交事务的关键问题。金博宝正规网址而且,如果公民不仅仅是事件的被动观众和“新闻”的消费者,那么他们也需要获得情报。

根据传统观点,保密是情报的内在性,“公共情报”的概念在术语上是矛盾的。48要求公众获得情报是拒绝这种观点。

However, to the extent that disclosure compromises or degrades sensitive intelligence sources or methods, intelligence disclosure becomes self-defeating.

Obviously, then, the optimum solution would be to enforce a distinction between the products of intelligence, which should in general be disclosed, and those sources and methods which must be protected if they are to remain productive.

目前,《国家安全法》第103条规定,中央情报局局长负责向(a)总统提供国家情报;(b)执行分支机构负责人;(c)担任参谋长和高级军事指挥官联合主席;(d)“在适当的情况下,参议院和众议院及其委员会。”49

现在,应修改本节,以将美国公众视为授权的情报消费者,符合合法的安全要求。

The precise implications of such an amendment would remain to be worked out (and fought over). But the statutory recognition of the public as an intelligence consumer would signal the beginning of a long overdue revolution in intelligence. The very idea of public intelligence challenges the foundations of Cold War intelligence policy in a way that the pieties of the official reform commissions and task forces failed to do.50

3.将“来源和方法”的保密性限制在那些披露可能会损坏来源或方法的情况下。

It is clear that the DCI has abused his authority to protect intelligence sources and methods by extending such protection to all manner of information that does not warrant it. The continued classification today of the 1947 intelligence budget on "sources and methods" grounds, as cited above, is sufficient proof of that.

因此,有必要限制该权威。正如1974年《信息自由法》的修正案指定的信息不一定仅仅是因为它被归类而免于披露 - 而是必须“适当地进行分类”,因此“来源和方法”的豁免不再是留给DCI的主观酌处权或异想天开。

因此,应修改《国家安全法》 [第103(c)(5)条],指出DCI应“保护智能来源和方法免受未经授权的披露如果该披露明显导致生命丧失或明显的智力能力丧失“或这种效果的语言。必不可少的是必须设定预扣信息的可辩护标准,并且必须接受独立的司法审查。

4。Reduce the volume of classified information by cancelling the lowest classification levels.

美国情报界有太多的分类信息。不加区分的分类首先通过扣留不需要保护的信息对国家造成了损害。但是,这也通过将安全资源从最需要的地方转移,并促进政府内部和外部的分类,从而贬低了分类系统本身的有效性。

去年的“分类国家安全信息”的行政命令12958制定了一项相当雄心勃勃的计划,用于解释25年历史的记录,但几乎没有或什么都没有限制当代分类活动。确实,在订单生效前一天可能被分类的任何东西也可以在第二天进行分类。因此,在分类范围的降低后战争减少仍有待实现。

正如随着苏联灭亡的灭亡,对美国国家安全威胁的规模和强度大大降低一样,政府保密的范围和数量也应相应减少。

一种继续进行的方法是绝对invalidate两个最低的分类水平,机密和秘密。除例外的合理津贴外,不应深入审查此材料的大部分,而应简单地被菲亚特(Fiat)解释。

如果分类的目的是来保护ect the nation's most sensitive secrets-- a task at which it has failed so badly in recent years-- then the wholesale cancellation and release of the least sensitive secrets would materially assist in achieving that purpose, while marking the end of Cold War classification policy.

结论

上述措施的种类将构成朝着更有生产力,响应迅速和可实现的情报系统的重要步骤。

当然,当今的政治条件与诸如此类的建议或实际上完全是故意的变化,因为去年的情报改革努力的崩溃令人尴尬地证明。

The good news, however, is that preserving the status quo is not a realistic option. The classification system can be fixed, or it can be allowed to deteriorate in the face of public and media resistance. Oversight can serve to uphold broad public interests, or it can devolve into a mere appendage of the intelligence agencies. The intelligence community itself can be transformed to enlighten and inform the nation as a whole, or it can continue to fight some iteration of the Cold War.

在每种情况下,阻力最小的道路就是什么都不做,让当前的趋势能够按照自己的意愿发挥作用。但是遵循这一道路,美国情报界将被一个不断发展的公众嘲笑,然后被其官方消费者拒绝,因为它的胜于日益敏捷的竞争对手,它表现出色并表现出色。


笔记

1。 中央情报局文件,由Robert L. Borosage和John Marks编辑,Grossman Publishers,纽约,1976年,第182页。

2。In 1995, the Presidential Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments called for the expeditious declassification of all surviving classified records from MKULTRA and more than half a dozen related CIA human experimentation programs from the late 1940s to the early 1970s. To date, the CIA has not complied with this recommendation.人类辐射实验咨询委员会的最终报告, October 1995, Recommendation 18, pp. 837-839.

3。但这正是中央情报局所说的。在拒绝请求(CIA FOIA编号95-0825)时,中央情报局引用了FOIA豁免(B)(1)国家安全和(B)(3)(3)(3)。拒绝的上诉仍在审理中。在对冷战扭曲了美国政治标准的大量反映中,战略服务办公室的预算是中央情报局的第二次世界大战前任,即使在战争本身中也没有分类!

4。"IC21: The Intelligence Community in the 21st Century," hearings before the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, July 27, 1995, page 205.

5。一个例外:出于某种原因,司法部情报政策和审查办公室在FOIA要求的文件中非常出色,并经常满足请求在法定的十天时间限制内!如果因遵守法律而获得奖品,该办公室将是赢家。

6。DCI基本上在来源和方法规定下都具有无限的权威,无论它实际上可能与揭示敏感的智能源或方法有多么遥远的范围。根据国家安全信息的行政命令,该信息无需“正确分类”。1947年的《国家安全法》,第103(c)(4)条,美国法典50403(d)(3)。

7。NSC Intelligence Directive No. 12, "Avoidance of Publicity Concerning the Intelligence Agencies of the U.S. Government," January 6, 1950. Reprinted in "Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment,"Foreign Relations of the United States,1945- 1950年,美国GPO,1996年,第1118-1119页。

8。这些披露的欢迎,他们几乎没有开始安抚大多数国家安全的历史学家。例如,参见“中央情报局对寻求分析秘密行动的历史学家无济于事”,吉姆·曼恩(Jim Mann),Los Angeles Times,1996年8月5日。

9。正如中央情报局情报研究中心主任布莱恩·拉特尔(Brian Latell)指出的那样,speaking at the National Archives on July 24。But according to the executive order, 15% of the inventory of 25 year old classified records were to be declassified by mid-October 1996 and CIA has not come close to declassifying 9 million pages this year (i.e. 15% of its 60 million declared pages).

10。对1997年《国防授权法》的修正案将在FOIA下豁免所有有关“组织或任何职能”国防情报局,国家侦察办公室以及新的国家图像和地图机构的信息。这将豁免超出适当分类的信息(已经免于FOIA)。看在五角大楼内, August 8, 1996, page 17.

11。Refreshingly, DCI William Casey did not claim to support greater openness in intelligence.

12。This is not to dismiss the threat posed by terrorists, proliferants, and others to global or regional stability. The point, rather, is that all the terrorists in the world do not add up to one USSR. The baseline threat to U.S. national security has dropped by orders of magnitude, while classification policy remains predicated on a ubiquitous high-tech superpower adversary.

13。"U.S. Sets Baghdad Missile Strike," by Bill Gertz,华盛顿时报,9/3/96,p。1;菲利普·谢农(Philip Shenon),“美国正在准备更大的空袭”纽约时报,9/12/96,p。A1。

14。"Overall support for security and counter-espionage measures is quite strong. Only in terms of the classification of secrets does the majority favor the anti-security [sic] position." See "Public Attitudes Towards Security and Counter-Espionage Matters in the Post Cold-War Period," November 1994, commissioned by the Personnel Security Research Center of the U.S. Department of Defense.

15。政府官员总是说“泄漏比以往任何时候都要糟糕。”但是施莱辛格(Schlesinger)在1975年提倡起诉西摩·赫什(Seymour Hersh)纽约时报为了发布分类信息,有一定的地位来进行比较。“ IC21:21世纪情报界”,众议院情报委员会的听证会,1995年5月22日,第1页。73。

16。沃尔特·拉奎尔(Walter Laqueur),秘密世界:智力的用途和限制, Basic Books, New York, 1985, page 391, note 31. The reference is to a secret memo that surfaced in early 1945 concerning plans to create an "all powerful super spy system."

17。A copy of Secretary Perry's July 31 memorandum on leaks, which itself was obtained through unofficial channels, is available athttp://www.金博宝网站www.tumejico.com/sgp/clinton/perry.html

18。沃尔特·平克斯(Walter Pincus),“伊朗武器和'没有指示的指示',”Washington Post, April 28, 1996, page A20.

19。"Nomination of Vice Admiral William O. Studeman to be Deputy Director of Central Intelligence," hearings before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, March 10, 1992, p. 49.

20。参议院选择有关情报活动的政府行动,外国和军事情报,第一本,1976年,第367-384页。

21。It is true that one highly classified-- in fact, unacknowledged-- DoD program was penetrated by unauthorized American citizens a few years ago, but a subsequent investigation determined that it should not have been classified at that high a level in the first place. See "The Timber Wind Special Access Program," DoD Inspector General Report Number 93-033, December 16, 1992.

22。Senator Arlen Specter, Chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, has stated that aggregate budget declassification should be the beginning, not the end, of budget disclosure.

23。蒂姆·韦纳(Tim Weiner),“ 280亿美元的间谍预算被错误地公开”,《纽约时报》,1994年11月4日。

24。Tony Capaccio and Eric Rosenberg, "Deutch Approves $27 Billion for Pentagon Spy Budgets," Defense Week, August 29, 1994.

25。R. Jeffrey Smith,“与Dots建立联系以破译美国间谍支出”,”The Washington Post,1996年3月12日,第1页。A11。

26。请参阅美国科学家联合会的约翰·派克(John Pike)准备的预算分析http://www.金博宝网站www.tumejico.com/irp/agency/index.html

27。国会记录,1995年12月21日,第H15496页。

28。“ IC21:21世纪的情报界”,工作人员研究,众议院永久性情报选择委员会,1996年,第1页。205.这项研究是自教会委员会报告以来最重要的国会情报出版物。

29。在成立众议院情报委员会近20年后,IC21员工研究仍然有必要指出,“应将成本划定为“基线”收集和其他计划的非基础计划。应该放逐一个未限制的情报“基础”。”(第117页)。国家侦察计划预算的三分之一以上(超过20亿美元)属于未限制的“基础”类别。

30。从阴影, Simon & Schuster, 1996, page 559.

31。Mary K. Sturtevant, "Congressional Oversight of Intelligence: One Perspective,"American Intelligence Journal, Summer 1992, pp. 17-20. Some of the "few constituents" are intelligence contractors, who have unfettered access to lobby for lucrative programs that potential critics are not even supposed to know about. See Robert Dreyfuss, "Orbit of Influence: Spy Finance and the Black Budget," The American Prospect, March-April 1996, pp. 30-36.

32。情报界与监督委员会工作人员之间长期存在的“旋转门”进一步损害了监督过程的完整性,就像最近任命了前众议院情报委员会参谋长成为中央情报局的总法律顾问一样。当代理机构利益与公共利益之间发生冲突时,自然而然地,拥有情报职业野心的工作人员会很想推迟该机构。

33。sturtevant,op.cit。,原始单词包围。

34。在五角大楼内,1996年9月12日,第5-6页。监督委员会也很幸运地获得了分类智能计算机网络Intelink。

35。参见IC21员工研究,第15章。委员会似乎误解了情报监督的非凡性质。正如委员会提出的那样,只要情报政策的最基本特征仍然归类,就不可能“对”情报监督“归一化”。

36。除了削减解密的支出和《信息自由法》的新豁免外,众议院情报委员会主席也反对对情报预算的解密,即使DCI确定可以安全地披露它。

37。众议院情报委员会在去年下半年对伊朗的秘密行动的坚持笨拙,这使美国新闻界的美国感到尴尬。1996年8月12日,伊朗政府向海牙的一名法庭提出了正式申诉,认为美国的行动违反了1980年的阿尔及尔协定美国之间的诉讼。

38。"IC21: The Intelligence Community in the 21st Century," hearings before the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, November 16, 1995, p. 317.

39。参见,例如,Tim Weiner, "Iraqi Offensive Into Kurdish Zone Disrupts U.S. Plot to Oust Hussein,"纽约时报, September 7, 1996; R.Jeffrey Smith, "CIA Operation Fell With Iraqi City,"Washington Post,1996年9月8日;杰弗里·史密斯(R.Washington Post,1996年9月15日,第1页。A1;还有凯文·费德科(Kevin Fedarko),“萨达姆的中央情报局政变”时间,1996年9月23日,第42-44页。

40。沃尔特·平克斯(Walter Pincus),“ Deutch货架1000万美元CIA野外房屋”,Washington Post,1996年7月31日,第A25页。

41。参见,例如,罗斯威尔报告:新墨西哥州沙漠中的事实与小说,美国空军总部,美国政府印刷办公室股票号。008-070-00697-9,1995,大约1000页。

42。Conspiracy-mongering as a strategy for promoting declassification may have already reached its peak, as the threshold for outrageousness becomes unachievably high and public discourse becomes increasingly incoherent. Today, "No one is willing to read 20 books on the CIA when they can watch 20 episodes of 'The X Files,' and have more fun doing it," writes Daniel Brandt of公共信息研究。结果是勃兰特先生所说的“为什么约翰尼不能异议”的问题。

43。For information on the use of high resolution imagery for public interest applications, see the FAS "Public Eye" website athttp://www.金博宝网站www.tumejico.com/eye/。另请参见加里·斯蒂克斯(Gary Stix),“公众眼”Scientific American, August 1996, pp. 18-19; and Charles Lane, "The Satellite Revolution,"The New Republic,1996年8月12日,第22-24页。

44。尊敬的男人:我在中央情报局的生活, Simon & Schuster, 1978, pp. 459.

45。可以从公共记录中推断出对秘密行动支出的合理估计。参见约翰·派克(John Pike),“无果的匕首:中央情报局用于秘密行动的支出”,秘密行动季刊,1994 - 95年冬季,第48-55页。

46。R. Jeffrey Smith,“批评家的错误,中央情报局负责人说”The Washington Post,1996年9月6日,第1页。A21;蒂姆·韦纳(Tim Weiner),“中央情报局(CIA)寻求恐怖主义的告密者,并找到他们,”纽约时报,1996年9月6日,第1页。A2.

47。尊敬的男人:我在中央情报局的生活, Simon & Schuster, 1978, pp. 459-60.

48。Thus, "The connection between intelligence and secrecy is central to most of what distinguishes intelligence from other intellectual activities." Abram Shulsky,无声战争:了解智力世界,第一版,Brassey's,1991年,第1页。174.有关鲜明对比的概念,请参见罗伯特·戴维·斯蒂尔(Robert David Steele),“ E3i:伦理,生态,进化和智慧”,”整个地球评论,1992年秋季,第74-79页。

49。Interestingly, the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence recently attempted to upgrade its status to a full-fledged equal consumer of national intelligence by deleting the phrase "where appropriate," thereby requiring the DCI to provide intelligence "to the Senate and House of Representatives and the appropriate committees thereof." See House Report 104-620, part 1, on "The Intelligence Community Act," sect. 102(b)(3). This proposed legislation never reached the House floor.

50。在一个有趣的发展中,中央情报局情报局(DI)的新战略计划指出:“公共宣传将是该局的最高优先事项之一[!],涵盖组织的各个层面。”此外,“ DI将非常适合与普通大众讨论IC如何为美国人民服务,而不仅仅是政府或国会。”但是,该计划并不认为美国公民对直接访问大多数DI产品具有合法的利益。参见“ 21世纪情报局:战略计划”,中央情报机构,1996年8月。

51。This remark might seem to be just a cheap rhetorical jibe if the author were not employed at the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence at the Pentagon. See volume 2 of the Proceedings of the 1995 Open Source Symposium, Open Source Solutions, Oakton, VA, pp. 428-436.

52。噩梦,哈珀·柯林斯(Harper Collins),纽约,1995年,第155页。

53。保密和民主, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1985, page 285.